Scales in the natural language: Some observations on semantics and typology


2025. №4, 42-76

 Maria Emilia Winkler                                            

Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; maria.emilia.winkler@gmail.com

Anastasija I. Gruzdeva                                              

Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; gruzdevaai@my.msu.ru

Vadim V. Dyachkov                                                

Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; hyppocentaurus@mail.ru

Egor V. Kashkin                                                   

Vinogradov Russian Language Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia;
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; egorka1988@gmail.com

Daria D. Mordashova                                               

Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; mordashova.d@yandex.ru

Petr O. Rossyaykin                                                 

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; petrrossyaykin@gmail.com

Julia V. Sinitsyna                                                  

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; jv.sinitsyna@yandex.ru

Sergei G. Tatevosov                                                

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; tatevosov@gmail.com

Irina A. Khomchenkova                                             

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Vinogradov Russian Language Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; irina.khomchenkova@yandex.ru

Abstract:

In this article, we discuss scalar phenomena across domains, taking a scale to be a set of entities linearly ordered by some relation. We address scalar semantics of various linguistic expressions (gradable adjectives, comparatives, approximative constructions, verbal modifiers, modals, focus markers, among others). The study is based on the data from Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Dogon, Gur languages, mostly collected during fieldwork conducted by the authors. The key research questions include the parameters of semantic variation across scalar expressions and the restrictions on this variation. We identify the characteristics of scalar structures used to analyze various linguistic items and describe basic operations on these structures. We argue that there are robust cross-linguistic regularities in how natural languages utilize scalar structures depending on the ontological type of ordered entities. In particular, times form a natural class with degrees in being arranged in a linear order. Individuals and events, in contrast, show a strong preference for a partial order. Finally, propositions are organized into scalar structures that can make use of both partial and linear order.

Keywords
adjectives
comparison
Dogon
focus
formal semantics
Gur
Karachay-Balkar
Kumyk
Mari
modality
Ossetic
Russian
scalarity
Udmurt
Uralic
Yakut

For citation:

Winkler M.-E., Gruzdeva A. I., Dyachkov V. V., Kashkin E. V., Mordashova D. D., Rossyaykin P. O., Sinitsyna J. V., Tatevosov S. G., Khomchenkova I. A. Scales in the natural language: Some observations on semantics and typology. Voprosy Jazykoznanija, 2025, 4: 42–76.

Acknowledgements:

The research has been supported by Russian Science Foundation (project No. 22-18-00285, Lomonosov Moscow State University).